4.1. Therapeutic indications

Ketamine is indicated in children and in adults

Ketamine is recommended:

As an anaesthetic agent for diagnostic and surgical procedures. When used by intravenous or intramuscular injection, Ketamine is best suited for short procedures. With additional doses, or by intravenous infusion, Ketamine can be used for longer procedures. If skeletal muscle relaxation is desired, a muscle relaxant should be used and respiration should be supported.

For the induction of anaesthesia prior to the administration of other general anaesthetic agents.

To supplement other anaesthetic agents.

Specific areas of application or types of procedures:

When the intramuscular route of administration is preferred.

Debridement, painful dressings, and skin grafting in burned patients, as well as other superficial surgical procedures.

Neurodiagnostic procedures such as pneumoencephalograms, ventriculograms, myelograms, and lumbar punctures.

Diagnostic and operative procedures of the eye, ear, nose, and mouth, including dental extractions.

Note: Eye movements may persist during ophthalmological procedures.

Anaesthesia in poor-risk patients with depression of vital functions or where depression of vital functions must be avoided, if at all possible.

Orthopaedic procedures such as closed reductions, manipulations, femoral pinning, amputations, and biopsies.

Sigmoidoscopy and minor surgery of the anus and rectum, circumcision and pilonidal sinus.

Cardiac catheterization procedures.

Caesarian section; as an induction agent in the absence of elevated blood pressure.

Anaesthesia in the asthmatic patient, either to minimise the risks of an attack of bronchospasm developing, or in the presence of bronchospasm where anaesthesia cannot be delayed.

4.2. Posology and method of administration

For intravenous infusion, intravenous injection or intramuscular injection.

NOTE: All doses are given in terms of ketamine base

Adults, elderly (over 65 years) and children:

For surgery in elderly patients ketamine has been shown to be suitable either alone or supplemented with other anaesthetic agents.

Preoperative preparations

Ketamine has been safely used alone when the stomach was not empty. However, since the need for supplemental agents and muscle relaxants cannot be predicted, when preparing for elective surgery it is advisable that nothing be given by mouth for at least six hours prior to anaesthesia.

Premedication with an anticholinergic agent (e.g atropine, hyoscine or glycopyrolate) or another drying agent should be given at an appropriate interval prior to induction to reduce ketamine-induced hypersalivation.

Midazolam, diazepam, lorazepam, or flunitrazepam used as a premedicant or as an adjunct to ketamine, have been effective in reducing the incidence of emergence reactions.

Onset and duration

As with other general anaesthetic agents, the individual response to Ketamine is somewhat varied depending on the dose, route of administration, age of patient, and concomitant use of other agents, so that dosage recommendation cannot be absolutely fixed. The dose should be titrated against the patient's requirements.

Because of rapid induction following intravenous injection, the patient should be in a supported position during administration. An intravenous dose of 2 mg/kg of bodyweight usually produces surgical anaesthesia within 30 seconds after injection and the anaesthetic effect usually lasts 5 to 10 minutes. An intramuscular dose of 10 mg/kg of bodyweight usually produces surgical anaesthesia within 3 to 4 minutes following injection and the anaesthetic effect usually lasts 12 to 25 minutes. Return to consciousness is gradual.

A. Ketamine as the sole anaesthetic agent

Intravenous Infusion

The use of Ketamine by continuous infusion enables the dose to be titrated more closely, thereby reducing the amount of drug administered compared with intermittent administration. This results in a shorter recovery time and better stability of vital signs.

A solution containing 1 mg/ml of ketamine in dextrose 5% or sodium chloride 0.9% is suitable for administration by infusion.

General Anaesthesia Induction

An infusion corresponding to 0.5 – 2 mg/kg as total induction dose.

Maintenance of anaesthesia

Anaesthesia may be maintained using a microdrip infusion of 10 – 45 microgram/kg/min (approximately 1 – 3 mg/min).

The rate of infusion will depend on the patient's reaction and response to anaesthesia. The dosage required may be reduced when a long acting neuromuscular blocking agent is used.

Intermittent Injection

Induction

Intravenous Route

The initial dose of Ketamine administered intravenously may range from 1 mg/kg to 4.5mg/kg (in terms of ketamine base).The average amount required to produce 5 to 10 minutes of surgical anaesthesia has been 2.0 mg/kg. It is recommended that intravenous administration be accomplished slowly (over a period of 60 seconds). More rapid administration may result in respiratory depression and enhanced pressor response.

Dosage in Obstetrics

In obstetrics, for vaginal delivery or in caesarean section, intravenous doses ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 mg/kg are recommended (see section 4.6 Fertility, pregnancy and lactation).

Intramuscular Route

The initial dose of Ketamine administered intramuscularly may range from 6.5 mg/kg to 13 mg/kg (in terms of ketamine base). A low initial intramuscular dose of 4 mg/kg has been used in diagnostic manoeuvres and procedures not involving intensely painful stimuli. A dose of 10 mg/kg will usually produce 12 to 25 minutes of surgical anaesthesia.

Dosage in Hepatic Insufficiency:

Dose reductions should be considered in patients with cirrhosis or other types of liver impairment. (see section 4.4 Special Warnings and Special Precautions for Use)

Dosage in Obstetrics

Data are lacking for intramuscular injection and maintenance infusion of ketamine in the parturient population, and recommendations cannot be made. Available data are presented in Section 5.2.

Maintenance of general anaesthesia

Lightening of anaesthesia may be indicated by nystagmus, movements in response to stimulation, and vocalization. Anaesthesia is maintained by the administration of additional doses of Ketamine by either the intravenous or intramuscular route.

Each additional dose is from ½ to the full induction dose recommended above for the route selected for maintenance, regardless of the route used for induction.

The larger the total amount of Ketamine administered, the longer will be the time to complete recovery.

Purposeless and tonic-clonic movements of extremities may occur during the course of anaesthesia. These movements do not imply a light plane and are not indicative of the need for additional doses of the anaesthetic.

B. Ketamine as induction agent prior to the use of other general anaesthetics

Induction is accomplished by a full intravenous or intramuscular dose of Ketamine as defined above. If Ketamine has been administered intravenously and the principal anaesthetic is slow-acting, a second dose of Ketamine may be required 5 to 8 minutes following the initial dose. If Ketamine has been administered intramuscularly and the principal anaesthetic is rapid-acting, administration of the principal anaesthetic may be delayed up to 15 minutes following the injection of Ketamine.

C. Ketamine as supplement to anaesthetic agents

Ketamine is clinically compatible with the commonly used general and local anaesthetic agents when an adequate respiratory exchange is maintained. The dose of Ketamine for use in conjunction with other anaesthetic agents is usually in the same range as the dosage stated above; however, the use of another anaesthetic agent may allow a reduction in the dose of Ketamine.

D. Management of patients in recovery

Following the procedure the patient should be observed but left undisturbed. This does not preclude the monitoring of vital signs. If, during the recovery, the patient shows any indication of emergence delirium, consideration may be given to the use of diazepam (5 to 10 mg I.V. in an adult). A hypnotic dose of a thiobarbiturate (50 to 100 mg I.V.) may be used to terminate severe emergence reactions. If any one of these agents is employed, the patient may experience a longer recovery period.

For instructions on dilution of the medicinal product before administration, see section 6.6.

4.3. Contraindications

Ketamine is contraindicated:

- In persons in whom an elevation of blood pressure would constitute a serious hazard (heart failure, severe cardiovascular disease, history of stroke, brain trauma, cerebral edema, or intracerebral hemorrhage, uncontrolled hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxic crisis - see section 4.8 Undesirable effects).

- In patients who have shown hypersensitivity to the active substance or to any of the excipients listed in section 6.1.

- In patients with eclampsia or pre-eclampsia.

4.4. Special warnings and precautions for use

To be used only in hospitals by or under the supervision of experienced medically qualified anaesthetists except under emergency conditions.

As with any general anaesthetic agent, resuscitative equipment should be available and ready for use.

Respiratory depression may occur with overdosage of Ketamine, in which case supportive ventilation should be employed. Mechanical support of respiration is preferred to the administration of analeptics. The intravenous dose should be administered over a period of 60 seconds. More rapid administration may result in transient respiratory depression or apnoea and enhanced pressor response.

Because pharyngeal and laryngeal reflexes usually remain active, mechanical stimulation of the pharynx should be avoided unless muscle relaxants, with proper attention to respiration, are used.

Although aspiration of contrast medium has been reported during Ketamine anaesthesia under experimental conditions (Taylor, P A and Towey, R M, Brit. Med. J. 1971, 2: 688), in clinical practice aspiration is seldom a problem.

In surgical procedures involving visceral pain pathways, Ketamine should be supplemented with an agent which obtunds visceral pain.

When Ketamine is used on an outpatient basis, the patient should not be released until recovery from anaesthesia is complete and then should be accompanied by a responsible adult.

Ketamine should be used with caution in patients with the following conditions:

Use with caution in the chronic alcoholic and the acutely alcohol-intoxicated patient.

Ketamine is metabolised in the liver and hepatic clearance is required for termination of clinical effects. A prolonged duration of action may occur in patients with cirrhosis or other types of liver impairment. Dose reductions should be considered in these patients. Abnormal liver function tests associated with ketamine use have been reported, particularly with extended use (>3 days) or drug abuse.

Since an increase in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure has been reported during Ketamine anaesthesia, Ketamine should be used with special caution in patients with preanaesthetic elevated cerebrospinal fluid pressure.

Use with caution in patients with a history of seizures or mental health disorders (e.g. schizophrenia, acute psychosis).

Use with caution in patients with globe injuries and increased intraocular pressure (e.g. glaucoma) because the pressure may increase significantly after a single dose of ketamine.

Use in caution in patients with acute intermittent porphyria.

Use in caution in patients with hyperthyroidism or patients receiving thyroid replacement (increased risk of hypertension and tachycardia).

Use in caution in patients with pulmonary or upper respiratory infection (ketamine sensitises the gag reflex, potentially causing laryngospasm)

Use in caution in patients with intracranial mass lesions, a presence of head injury, or Hydrocephalus.

Emergence Reaction

The psychological manifestations vary in severity between pleasant dream-like states, vivid imagery, hallucinations, nightmares and emergence delirium (often consisting of dissociative or floating sensations), In some cases these states have been accompanied by confusion, excitement, and irrational behaviour which a few patients recall as an unpleasant experience. (See section 4.8 Undesirable Effects).

Emergence delirium phenomena may occur during the recovery period. The incidence of these reactions may be reduced if verbal and tactile stimulation of the patient is minimised during the recovery period. This does not preclude the monitoring of vital signs.

Because of the substantial increase in myocardial oxygen consumption, ketamine should be used in caution in patients with hypovolemia, dehydration or cardiac disease, especially coronary artery disease (e.g. congestive heart failure, myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction). In addition ketamine should be used with caution in patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension and tachyarrhythmias.

Cardiac function should be continually monitored during the procedure in patients found to have hypertension or cardiac decompensation.

Elevation of blood pressure begins shortly after the injection of Ketamine, reaches a maximum within a few minutes and usually returns to preanaesthetic values within 15 minutes after injection. The median peak rise of blood pressure in clinical studies has ranged from 20 to 25 percent of preanaesthetic values. Depending on the condition of the patient, this elevation of blood pressure may be considered a beneficial effect, or in others, an adverse reaction.

Long-Term use:

Cases of cystitis including haemorrhagic cystitis, acute kidney injury, hydronephrosis and ureteral disorders have been reported in patients being given ketamine on a long term basis, especially in the setting of ketamine abuse. These adverse reaction develops in patients receiving long term ketamine treatment after a time ranging from 1 month to several years. Ketamine is not indicated nor recommended for long term use.

Drug Abuse and Dependence:

Ketamine has been reported as being a drug of abuse. Reports suggest that ketamine produces a variety of symptoms including, but not limited to, flashbacks, hallucinations, dysphoria, anxiety, insomnia, or disorientation. Adverse effects have also been reported: see "Long-Term Use". If used on a daily basis for a few weeks, dependence and tolerance may develop, particularly in individuals with a history of drug abuse and dependence. Therefore, the use of Ketamine should be closely supervised and it should be prescribed and administered with caution.

Cases of hepatic disorders, in particular cholestatic of cholangitis type, that may be severe, have been reported in case of prolonged (> 3 days) and/or repeated use or in case of abuse/misuse. In some cases of very prolonged use at high doses, these lesions have led to liver transplantations. Discontinuation of treatment should be considered in case of disturbances of liver function.

4.5. Interaction with other medicinal products and other forms of interaction

Prolonged recovery time may occur if barbiturates and/or narcotics are used concurrently with Ketamine.

Ketamine is chemically incompatible with barbiturates and diazepam because of precipitate formation. Therefore, these should not be mixed in the same syringe or infusion fluid.

Ketamine may potentiate the neuromuscular blocking effects of atracurium and tubocurarine including respiratory depression with apnea.

The use of halogenated anaesthetics and barbiturates concomitantly with ketamine can lengthen the elimination half-life of ketamine and delay recovery from anaesthesia. Concurrent use of ketamine (especially in high doses or when rapidly administered) with halogenated anaesthetics can increase the risk of developing bradycardia, hypotension or decreased cardiac output.

The use of ketamine with other central nervous system (CNS) depressants (e.g. ethanol, phenothiazines, sedating H1 – blockers or skeletal muscle relaxants) can potentiate CNS depression and/or increase risk of developing respiratory depression. Reduced doses of ketamine may be required with concurrent administration of other anxiolytics, sedatives and hypnotics.

Ketamine has been reported to antagonise the hypnotic effect of thiopental.

Patients taking thyroid hormones have an increased risk of developing hypertension and tachycardia when given ketamine.

Concomitant use of antihypertensive agents and ketamine increases the risk of developing hypotension.

When ketamine and theophylline or aminophylline (combination of anhydrous theophylline and ethylenediamine) are given concurrently, a clinically significant reduction in the seizure threshold is observed. Unpredictable extensor-type seizures have been reported with concurrent administration of these agents.

4.6. Fertility, pregnancy and lactation

Pregnancy

Ketamine crosses the placenta. This should be borne in mind during operative obstetric procedures in pregnancy.

No controlled clinical studies in pregnancy have been conducted. The use in pregnancy has not been established, and such use is not recommended, with the exception of administration during surgery for abdominal delivery or vaginal delivery.

Some neonates exposed to ketamine at maternal intravenous doses ≥ 1.5 mg/kg during delivery have experienced respiratory depression and low Apgar scores requiring newborn resuscitation.

Marked increases in maternal blood pressure and uterine tone have been observed at intravenous doses greater than 2 mg/kg.

Data are lacking for intramuscular injection and maintenance infusion of ketamine in the parturient population, and recommendations cannot be made. Available data are presented in Section 5.2.

Studies in animals have shown reproductive toxicity (see section 5.3).

Lactation

The safe use of ketamine during lactation has not been established, and such use is not recommended.

4.7. Effects on ability to drive and use machines

Patients should be cautioned that driving a car, operating hazardous machinery or engaging in hazardous activities should not be undertaken for 24 hours or more after anaesthesia.

This medicine can impair cognitive function and can affect a patient's ability to drive safely. This class of medicine is in the list of drugs included in regulations under 5a of the Road Traffic Act 1988. When prescribing this medicine, patients should be told:

• The medicine is likely to affect your ability to drive

• Do not drive until you know how the medicine affects you

• It is an offence to drive while under the influence of this medicine

• However, you would not be committing an offence (called 'statutory defence') if:

o The medicine has been prescribed to treat a medical or dental problem and

o You have taken it according to the instructions given by the prescriber and in the information provided with the medicine and

o It was not affecting your ability to drive safely

4.8. Undesirable effects

The following Adverse Events have been reported:

MedDRA

System Organ Class

Frequency†

Undesirable Effects

Immune system disorders

Rare

Anaphylactic reaction*

Metabolism and nutrition disorders

Uncommon

Anorexia

Psychiatric disorders

Common

Hallucination, Abnormal dreams, Nightmare, Confusion, Agitation, Abnormal behaviour

Uncommon

Anxiety

Rare

Delirium* Flashback*, Dysphoria*, Insomnia, Disorientation*

Nervous system disorders

Common

Nystagmus, Hypertonia, Tonic clonic movements

Eye disorders

Common

Diplopia

Not known

Intraocular pressure increased

Cardiac disorders

Common

Blood pressure increased, Heart rate increased

Uncommon

Bradycardia, Arrhythmia

Vascular disorders

Uncommon

Hypotension

Respiratory, thoracic and mediastinal disorders

Common

Respiratory rate increased

Uncommon

Respiratory depression, Laryngospasm

Rare

Obstructive airway disorder*,

Apnoea*

Gastrointestinal disorders

Common

Nausea, Vomiting

Rare

Salivary hypersecretion*

Hepatobiliary disorders

Not known

Liver function test abnormal

Skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders

Common

Erythema, Rash morbilliform

Renal and urinary disorders

Rare

Cystitis*, Haemorrhagic cystitis*

General disorders and administration site conditions

Uncommon

Injection site pain, Injection site rash

† Common (≥1/100 to <1/10); Uncommon (≥1/1,000 to <1/100); Rare (≥1/10,000 to <1/1,000); Not known (frequency cannot be estimated from the available data)

* AE frequency estimated from post-marketing safety database

Reporting of suspected adverse reactions

Reporting suspected adverse reactions after authorisation of the medicinal product is important. It allows continued monitoring of the benefit/risk balance of the medicinal product. Healthcare professionals are asked to report any suspected adverse reactions via the Yellow Card Scheme Website: www.mhra.gov.uk/yellowcard or search for MHRA Yellow Card in the Google Play or Apple App Store

4.9. Overdose

Respiratory depression can result from an overdosage of ketamine hydrochloride. Supportive ventilation should be employed. Mechanical support of respiration that will maintain adequate blood oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide elimination is preferred to administration of analeptics.

Ketamine has a wide margin of safety; several instances of unintentional administration of overdoses of Ketamine (up to 10 times that usually required) have been followed by prolonged but complete recovery.